Assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand was the catalyst for war
Brought tensions to a high between Austro-Hungarian empire and Serbia
Underlying Causes For the War
Intense nationalism
Frustrated national ambitions
Ethnic resentments
Pursuit of exclusive economic interests
Abrasive colonial rivalries
General struggle over the balance of power in Europe and the world at large
Between 1871 and 1914, European governments adopted policies that increased the danger of war
So as not to be alone, national leaders sought alignments with other powers
Establishment and maintenance of two hostile alliances-- the Allies and Central Powers-- helped spread the war from the Balkans
Nationalism
The French Revolution and other Napoleonic conquests aided in the spread of nationalism throughout Europe
Self-determination: idea that peoples with the same ethnic origins, language, and political ideals had the right to form sovereign states
The powers that dominated European affairs during the early 19th century either ignored or opposed the principle of self-determination
Denied national autonomy to Germans, Italians, and Belgians, among others
Soon, a combination of powerful nationalistic movements, revolutions, and wars allowed Belgians to gain independence from the Netherlands in 1830
Promoted unification of Italy in 1861
Secured unification of Germany in 1871
At the end of the 19th century, the issue of nationalism remained unresolved in other areas of Europe, most notably in eastern Europe and the Balkans
Nationalist aspirations of subject minorities threatened to tear apart the Ottoman, Habsburg, and Russian empires/dynasties, and with them, the regional balance of power
In these instances, opposition to foreign rule played a large role in the construction of national identities and demands for self-determination
As the Ottoman territories succumbed to the forces of nationalism, Austria-Hungary confronted the nationalist aspirations of Slavic peoples-- Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
The Serbs pressed for unification with the independent kingdom in Serbia
Russia added fuel to the situation by promoting Pan-Slavism
A movement that stressed the ethnic and cultural kinship of the various Slavic peoples of eastern and east central Europe and that sought to unite these peoples politically
Supported Slav nationalism in lands occupied by Austria-Hungary
Purpose behind this policy was to promote secession by Slav areas, thereby weakening Austrian rule and perhaps preparing territories for future Russian annexation
This support helped set the stage for international conflict
Aggressive nationalism was also manifest in economic competition and colonial conflicts, fuelling dangerous rivalries among the major European powers
The industrialised nations of Europe competed for foreign markets and engaged in tariff wars
The most unsettling economic rivalry involved Great Britain and Germany
By the 20th century, Germany’s rapid industrialisation threatened British economic predominance
Their naval race further increased tensions
Germans and Britons convinced themselves that naval power was imperative to secure trade routes and protect merchant shipping
Military leaders and politicians viewed powerful navies as a means of controlling the sea in times of war, which they believed would affect the outcome of a war
Therefore, when Germany’s political and military leaders announced their program to build a huge naval fleet, they seemed to undermine British naval supremacy
The British retaliated with the building of super battleships called dreadnoughts
Instead of discouraging the Germans to cease their building, the British determination to retain supremacy spurred the Germans to build their own fleet of dreadnoughts
This expensive naval race contributed further to international tensions and hostilities between nations
Economic rivalries led to colonial competition
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European nations searched for new colonies or territories to bolster economic performance
In their haste to conquer, the imperial powers repeatedly clashed many parts of the globe
Britain and Russia faced off in Persia and Afghanistan
Britain and France in Siam (modern-day Thailand) and the Nile Valley
Britain and Germany in east and southwest Africa
Germany and France in Morocco and west Africa
All of the powers engaged in this struggle, but the competition between Britain and Germany and that between France and Germany was the most intense and dangerous
Between 1905 and 1914, a series of international crises and two local wars raised tensions and almost precipitated a general European war
The first crisis resulted from a French-German confrontation over Morocco
Trying to isolate the French diplomatically, the German government announced its support of Moroccan independence, which would be endangered by French encroachment
The French responded to German intervention by threatening war
The Balkan wars also strained tensions
Between 1912 and 1913, the states of the Balkan peninsula-- including Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania-- fought two consecutive wars for possession of European territories held by the Ottoman empire
Public pressure also contributed
Characteristic of many European societies was a high degree of political participation and chauvinism on the part of citizens who identified strongly with the state
These were the citizens that wanted their nation to outshine all the others, especially in the international arena
New methods of communication meant that the public’s desire to see their country “come first” was intensified, whether in the competition for colonies or in the race to the South Pole
The content of cheap, mass-produced newspapers and other news outlets fuelled feelings of national arrogance and aggressive patriotism
Public pressure calling for national greatness placed policymakers and diplomats in an awkward situation
The compel to achieve headline-grabbing foreign policy successes, these leaders ran the risk of paying for short-lived triumphs with long-lasting hostility from other countries
Understandings and Alliances
Rival systems of alliance prompted allies to come to one another's’ defense
Central Powers
Germany and Austria-Hungary formed a Dual Alliance 1879
In fear of France, Italy joined the Dual Alliance in 1882, thus, the Triple Alliance
Ottoman empire loosely affiliated with Germany
Allies
Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente, or the Allies
Shifting series of treaties ended with a military pact, 1914
War Plans
Each power was prepared for war
Military leaders devised inflexible military plans and timetables
France's Plan XVII focused on offensive maneuvers and attacks
Germany's Schlieffen plan: swift attack on France, then defensive against Russia
This is an image of a dreadnought, which was the result of conflict between Germany and England for naval supremacy.
This map depicts the different sides that World War One sparked, and the resulting antagonism against rival countries that would tear each other apart.
Global War
Chain reaction of war declarations
June 1914, Austrian Archduke assassinated by Serbian nationalist
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, July 28
Russia mobilized troops to defend its Serbian ally against the Central Powers
Germany: July 31, sent ultimatums to Russia and France, which were ignored
Germany declared war on Russia and France, invaded Belgium to reach France
August 4: to protect Belgium's neutrality, Britain declared war on Germany
War was greeted with enthusiasm on all sides, but was expected to be brief
The Western Front
German invasion of France halted along the river Marne for three years
Trenches on the western front ran from the English Channel to Switzerland
Italy entered war with Allies, maintained defensive line against Austria-Hungary
New Weapons
New technologies favored defensive tactics over offensive tactics
Poisonous gas: introduced by Germans, used by both sides
Eight hundred thousand casualties from mustard gas
Armored tanks used to break down trenches toward end of the war
Airplanes used mainly for reconnaissance
Submarines used especially by Germans against Allied shipping
Eastern Front
Austrian-German forces overran Serbia, Albania, and Romania
Russia invaded Prussia 1915, but was soon driven out
Russians' counterattacks in 1916-1917 collapsed in a sea of casualties
Death Counts
At Verdun: French "victory" with 315,000 dead, defeated Germans lost 280,000
At the Somme, Britain and Germany saw losses of 420,000 each
The Home Front
Governments militarized civilian war production
Imposed wage and price controls
Extended military draft in Germany from ages sixteen to sixty
Propaganda
Included censorship and restrictions on civil liberties
Criticism of the war regarded as treasonous
Propaganda designed to dehumanize the enemy
Conflict in East Asia and the Pacific
European animosities extended to the colonies
British and French forces recruited colonials into their armies
Eventually, Japan, United States, Ottoman empire entered the war
Japan entered war with the Allies
Twenty-One Demands
Japan advanced its imperial interests in China
The Twenty-One Demands were designed to reduce China to Japanese protectorate
Britain intervened, prevented total capitulation of China to Japan
Battles in Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Allies targeted the four German colonies in Africa
Togoland fell quickly, but not the others
Many Allied soldiers and workers died from tropical diseases
Battle of Gallipoli, 1915, in Ottoman Turkey
British decided to strike at the weakest Central Power, the Ottomans
Battle of Gallipoli a disaster, with 250,000 casualties on each side
Weakened ties of loyalty between Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Britain
The Ottoman empire lost ground after Gallipoli
Lost Caucasus to Russians
Successful Arab revolt aided by British
This depicts a poison gas attack. Poison gas was one of the technologies introduced by Germany in this time period, but both sides used it.
End of the War
Revolution in Russia
February Revolution of 1917: uprising against shortages, mounting deaths in the war
Facing mutinies, Nicholas II abdicated throne
Provisional government established
V. I. Lenin
A revolutionary Marxist, exiled in Switzerland
Saw importance of a well-organized, disciplined party for revolution
German authorities delivered Lenin to Russia, 1917, to take Russia out of war
Headed radical Bolshevik Party: demanded power to soviets, withdrawal from war
October Revolution
Minority Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd soviet
Bolsheviks' slogan "Peace, Land, and Bread" appealed to workers and peasants
Armed force seized power from provisional government in name of all soviets
Russia withdraws from war
Makes separate peace with Germany
Loses 1/3 of Ukraine
US Intervention and Collapse of the Central Powers
1914-1916, United States under President Woodrow Wilson officially neutral
American public opposed participation in a European war
U.S. companies sold supplies, gave loans to Allies
By 1917, Allied ability to repay loans depended on Allied victory
The submarine warfare helped sway American public opinion
German blockade sank merchant ships, intended to strangle Britain
1915, Germans sank Lusitania, a British passenger liner, killing 1,198 passengers
United States declared war on Germany, 6 April 1917
Collapsing fronts after years of bloodletting
April 1916, Irish nationalists attempted to overthrow British rule
Central Powers: shortages, food riots, mutinies
1917, mutiny of fifty thousand French soldiers
Spring 1918, massive Germany offensive on western front failed
With fresh American troops, Allies broke the front and pushed the Germans back
Central Powers collapsed, one after another; accepted armistices November 1918
The Paris Peace Conference, 1919
In the end, the Great War killed fifteen million people, wounded twenty million
The Paris settlement was dominated by heads of Britain, France, and United States
Twenty-seven nations with conflicting aims participated
Leaders of Central Powers and Soviet Union not included
Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points: proposal for a just and lasting peace
Included free trade, arms treaties, rights for colonials, an association of nations
Most of the program rejected by Allies; Central Powers felt betrayed
The Peace Treaties, 1919
French insisted on destroying German military
Central Powers forced to accept war guilt and pay reparations for cost of war
Austria and Hungary were separated and reduced; the new states were added to eastern Europe
Overall, the peace settlement was a failure; left a bitter legacy
The League of Nations created to maintain world peace
Forty-two members, twenty-six of them outside Europe
The league had no power to enforce its decisions
Collective security depended on all major powers, but United States never joined
Self-determination for ethnic nationalities: urged by Wilson at Paris Conference
Basis for redrawing map of eastern Europe: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia
Difficult to draw lines: German minorities left in Poland and Czechoslovakia
Yugoslavia: land of southern Slaves, uneasy mix of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes
The mandate system
United States opposed direct colonization; Allies proposed system of trusteeships
Colonies of Central Powers divided into three classes of mandates
Allies divided up Germany's African colonies, Ottoman territories in southwest Asia
Arabs outraged at betrayal by their British allies
Challenges to European preeminence
Great War weakened Europe, set the stage for decolonization after World War II
Economic crises: inflation, debt, loss of overseas investments, foreign markets
Economic relationship between Europe and United States reversed; United States now creditor
Loss of prestige overseas weakened European grip on colonies
Revolutionary ideas
The war helped spread concept of self-determination
Nationalist movements also sought inspiration from the Soviet Union
Synthesis Throughout history, war has has a curious habit of inspiring new technologies. We've come a long way from the bows and arrows of long past, to javelins, to cannons, leading to the submarines and poisonous gas used in World War I. Now, in the contemporary period (1900-now), we use a wide range of technologies to fight our enemies, such as drones, missiles, and building upon our old technologies, such as making our bombs more powerful and our old war submarines more stealthy and hard to detect. Additionally, nationalism has had a profound effect on inspiring conflict and bloodshed. For example, the Napoleonic conquests of the modern era were in part, sparked by French nationalism following the murder of Louis XIV, just as nationalism and desire to see each individual country succeed was a major factor in beginning World War I.
Works Cited WatchMojo. "World War I - How Did It End?" YouTube. YouTube, 08 July 2010. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. "POISON GAS IN WW1." ElginHistory12 - POISON GAS IN WW1. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. Golson, Jordan. "The WWI Battleships That Saved (And Doomed) the British Empire."Wired. Conde Nast, 21 Aug. 2014. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. "1. WORLD WAR." Pinterest. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Feb. 2017.